The Jewish people expected the coming of the Messiah to bring an end to the cosmos, destroying it in a fiery inferno. With the destruction of the old creation would come a totally new creation, a new heaven and new earth. An event so monumental should thus be accompanied by undeniable signs including the destruction of the old world. Chaos should be evident in the old cosmos and signs manifest of the new creation. These signs will be examined that served to portend the end of the old world order and the establishment of the new heaven and new earth.

Signs in the Heavens – The Star of Bethlehem

The Star of Bethlehem has been an object of fascination among believers for two millennia. Most consider it a sign of Christ’s birth. Few recognize the eschatological significance of its appearing. If the first coming of Christ ushered in a new creation that is displacing the current old creation. then the appearing of the Star of Bethlehem should be a sign of the coming new creation. We will first seek a confirmable heavenly appearing as a possible sign of Christ’s birth. Following this, we will attempt to show the eschatological significance of its appearing. The first coming of Christ was accompanied by signs in the heavens.

² And asked, “Where is the one who has been born king of the Jews? We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him.” Matthew 2

⁷ Then Herod called the Magi secretly and found out from them the exact time the star had appeared. Matthew 2

When Did This Star Appear?

A star, His star, appeared in the heavens as a sign. Herod thought it critical to know “what time” the star had appeared, as he understood the near eastern importance of stars and times of their appearances. Herod was concerned that this star’s appearing heralded a new king, the Jewish Messiah. Was there a star, and if so, was its appearing significant and indicative of a king? Critical to this question is determining the time of Herod’s reign, followed by examining the possible stars appearing during that time period.

There were a number of people named Herod during the period of Jesus’ life. The Magi approached Herod the Great, whose reign began roughly in 74 B.C.E. Determining Herod’s death becomes important as Mathew 2 states that Jesus’ family fled Palestine to escape Herod’s attempt to kill him and did not return until after his death:

¹³ When they had gone, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream. “Get up,” he said, “take the child and his mother and escape to Egypt. Stay there until I tell you, for Herod is going to search for the child to kill him.” ¹⁴ So he got up, took the child and his mother during the night and left for Egypt, ¹⁵ where he stayed until the death of Herod. And so was fulfilled what the Lord had said through the prophet: “Out of Egypt I called my son.”

Most scholars accept the testimony of Josephus that Herod died in 4 B.C.E. This date is important as it establishes a lower bound when searching for stars whose appearance may have signaled Jesus’ birth.

What Was this Astronomical Appearance?

A number of candidate celestial appearances have been suggested as the star of Bethlehem, ranging between 8 B.C.E. and 4 B.C.E. Generally, the suggestions fall into the general category of comets, planetary alignments and supernovas. Fermer states:

1. It may have been Halley’s Comet (11 B.C.) or another comet visible in 4 B.C. This would have moved against the stars, and astrologers would have thought it significant. But would it have been visible long enough? And can the chronology be fitted in with the probable date of our Lord’s birth?
2. It may have been a planetary conjunction. An interesting conjunction of Jupiter, Saturn and Venus took place early in 7 B.C. Astrologers would certainly have noted this; but its duration would be brief, and such a phenomenon could not naturally be referred to as “a star”.
3. It may have been a supernova. . . . Supernovae, however, are very rare; there has not been one in our galaxy since telescopes were invented. . . . Chinese astronomers recorded a nova or supernova at about the right date to be “the Magi’s star. [1]

Was the Star a Supernova?

A supernova is generally argued by those believing that the appearing of a new star, a “true” star best fits the star of Bethlehem. A supernova is generally thought to be bright enough to be noticed as a new star in the heavens. Tiplar is an example, arguing first that the Matthean account must be understood literally, and a star literally must mean a stationary fixed star, not a planet or comet. [2] Tiplar labors to show the position where the star would need to have appeared in order to literally fulfill the Matthean account of the Star of Bethlehem.

Unfortunately, Tiplar acknowledges that currently there is no evidence of a nova in the location he has suggested and can only hope that with future technical capabilities, one will be uncovered. Oddly, Chinese astronomers recorded a nova from March 10^th to April 7^th 5 B.C.E., the approximate time of the Star of Bethlehem’s appearing. Tiplar’s analysis suggests that his proposed nova location is not the location of the Chinese nova sighting. [3] The critical shortcoming with Tiplar’s argument is his insistence that the Matthean account demands a “literal” interpretation of a stationary star.

Tiplar is a physicist and seems to require a literal interpretation that is based in the precision of today’s science. The ancients may not have required such precision in language. The ancients were aware that some stars were not stationary, moving against the stationary stars. These stars were called “wandering stars”, the Greek term being the source of our modern word “planet”.

Was the Star Actually a Comet?

Likewise, comets were often described as stars (e.g. broom stars). Tiplar seems to overlook the significance of Genesis 1:14-19 where God made “lights” in the heavens “to mark seasons and days and years”. The term “lights” seems deliberately imprecise as the importance is not in whether these cosmic bodies are moving or stationary, but that these heavenly bodies are signs to mark the times of God’s redemptive activities. Marking the “times” implies a complex series of interrelated movements between these bodies. Given these factors, the requirement for the Star of Bethlehem to be a stationary literal star seems unnecessary.

Comets have recently been argued as the Star of Bethlehem. Traditionally, comets were thought to have primarily negative connotations and were generally not considered in earlier analysis of the Star of Bethlehem. However, recent evidence suggests that comets were often thought to mark the birth of important persons or empires. [4] The focus of the comet-hunters is the Chinese astral records which reveal a nova or comet seen in 5 B.C.E. in the constellation of Capricornus between March 10^th and April 7^th.

Some scholars have posited that this “broom-star” was a comet and also the Star of Bethlehem. However, comets were not particularly rare and one must answer why this particular comet marked the birth of Christ. Some scholars have searched for additional astral occurrences leading up to this comet’s appearing that would make it unique or more significant.

Colin Humphreys provides an example, claiming prior planetary alignments together with the appearance of the 5 B.C.E. comet best fit the Star-of-Bethlehem criteria (the triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 7 B.C.E. and the massing of Jupiter, Saturn and Mars in 6 B.C.E. were the forerunning astral events that signaled the birth of Christ). 

Humphreys is not alone. Other scholars have concluded that the mere appearance of a comet likely would have been inadequate to signal such a critically important event. Yet Herod did not seem to be aware of the star’s appearing. An object as notable as a comet likely would not have escaped Herod’s notice. Astrology was common in the ancient world. Many leaders had personal astrologers who kept an eye on the sky. The appearance of a comet would certainly capture public attention.

Was the “star” a planetary Alignment?

 The final category worthy of consideration is planetary conjunctions. In modern thought, planets are not often thought of as stars. However, to the ancients, planets were considered stars:

In astronomy, the naked-eye planets are the five planets of our solar system that can be discerned with the naked eye without much difficulty. Hence, they were the only planets known to the ancients prior to the invention of the telescope. They are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the five planets closest to Earth. The name planet comes from the Greek term πλανήτης,[5] planētēs, meaning “wanderer”, as ancient astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. They called these objects asteres planetai, or wandering stars. In some cultures, the Sun and Moon have also been counted as planets, to make the seven classical planets. [6]

If the ancients referred to planets as wandering stars, it opens the possibility that a conjunction of certain of the visible planets was considered special or noteworthy by the ancients. Also, a conjunction within specific constellations or Zodiacal signs might be indicative of a coming king or a change in the current political situation.

Possible Planetary Alignments

Jupiter and Saturn in 7 B.C.E.

A number of possible planetary conjunctions have been proposed. One of the most common is the triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 7 B.C.E. Kaufmanis, a former Astronomy Professor from the University of Minnesota was one of those who popularized this view. He asserts that both Jupiter and Saturn were deeply significant in ancient Jewish astrology with Jupiter being the King’s Star of God and Saturn being the Messiah’s star. [7] Kaufmanis claims their heliacal rising together would be a rare and spectacular event (about every 853 years) to Jewish astrologers located in Babylon. It would make it even more significant as their rising in Pisces, a constellation he claims represented Palestine in Jewish astrological antiquity.

Kaufmanis asserts that the rising would be seen in the eastern sky just before morning, with their heliacal rising occurring on April 12^th, 7 B.C.E. Jupiter and Saturn would subsequently draw closer together until May 27^th, whereupon Jupiter would overtake Saturn. By October 5^th, both planets had once again drawn closer to each other before another separation and a third conjunction on December 1^st. He then argues that the first conjunction in late May would preclude the magi from traveling during the heat of the desert summer, suggesting their travel would await the cooler fall season triggered by the second conjunction on October 5^th. By the time of their arrival in Jerusalem, both Saturn and Jupiter would be seen in the evening in close proximity, but in the southern sky fulfilling the Matthean account.

Simo Parpola, Professor of Assyriology, supports this view and fills in some of the informational gaps using his knowledge of Assyrian, Babylonian and Mesopotamian astrology and history. [8] First he clarifies that Matthew’s use of the magi (μάγοι magoi) is a reference to Persian astronomers. He adds that though Scripture does not specify the names or numbers present, tradition tells us there were three, with the names Balthassar, Melchior and Caspar. He notes that Balthassar is a Greek corruption of the Babylonian name Belshazzar (Beµl-sáar-us\ur (Bel-shar-usur)), Melchior is a common Aramaic name found in Assyrian/Babylonian texts and Caspar is a Roman corruption of Gondophares (Gadaspar), a Parthian name. To Parpola, these names suggest the magi came from Babylon in Parthia. Regarding the knowledge of these ancient astronomers, Parpola states:

. . . between 220 B.C.E. and 75 C.E., Babylonian astronomy had advanced so far that all significant phenomena involving [the] five visible planets and the moon could be accurately computed in advance. This is demonstrated in the many Babylonian astronomical almanacs that have survived from this period. Like modern almanacs, the Babylonian texts were prepared a year in advance and provide a month-by-month account of what would be seen in the night sky. The data include lunar and solar eclipses, solstices and equinoxes, the first and last dates when stars would be visible in the night sky, planetary positions in relation to the zodiacal signs, conjunctions (when celestial bodies appear closest to each other in the sky) and oppositions (when a planet appears on the opposite side of the Earth from the sun) [9]

Parpola then reviews the possible stellar candidates, concluding that the appearing of Halley’s comet in 12 B.C.E. was too early, that the nova recorded in Chinese records is unsuitable as it did not move, and that the conjunction of Venus with Jupiter in 2 B.C.E. was too late, having occurred after Herod’s death in 4 B.C.E. (and too short, lasting only 2 hours). [10] He also rejects Michael Molnar’s theory that the star of Bethlehem was the double occultations of Jupiter with the moon, arguing the meaning of such an occultation to Babylonian astrologers was the death of the king and famine in the west.

Parpola concludes the only suitable candidate is the triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in 7 B.C.E. followed by the massing with Mars. His belief is supported by the excavation of several clay tablets of astronomical computations including the year 7 BCE, revealing that Jupiter and Saturn would be continuously visible in Pisces for 11 months with three dates forecast where the two planets would be in closest conjunction. [11] The tablet also revealed the massing of Mars with Jupiter and Saturn at the end of their conjunction. [12]

He notes the Babylonian significance as follows: Jupiter was known as the star of Marduk, Babylon’s supreme god. Saturn was known as the star of the king, the earthly representative of his god (i.e. the king served in a Messianic role). Pisces represented Ea, the god of wisdom, life and creation. As the last constellation in the Zodiac, the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in Pisces signified “the end of the old world order and the birth of a new savior king chosen by God” (i.e. the Messiah, the true Son of God, God’s true representative of man on earth). [13] Mars was the star of Nergal, the god of war, also known as the star of Amurru and represented Syria-Palestine to the west. Parpola sees its massing with Jupiter and Saturn as an indicator that the savior was to be born in Palestine:

The predictions of such a king would have held wide interest in 7 B.C.E., when a power vacuum prevailed in the Near East. The Seleucid empire created by the successors of Alexander the Great had collapsed in 64 B.C.E., and its remnants, which included Judea had been annexed to Rome as a province named Syria. The power of Rome had not yet been consolidated in the area, however. Even after Augustus changed Rome into an autocratic monarchy in 27 B.C.E., his authority was questioned in the East, for the Roman emperor, unlike the Seleucid kings and their predecessors did not derive his authority from God. For this reason, many people considered Roman rule illegitimate and hoped that a local Near Eastern king appointed by God would drive the Romans out of the country and create a better world. These messianic expectations are recorded by Josephus and reflected in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The conjunction of 7 B.C.E. would have been interpreted as a portent of the birth of precisely this kind of king. The political vistas opened by it would not have escaped the attention of any Babylonian astrologer. [14]

It is the second conjunction that Parpola believes led the magi to journey to Palestine, arriving prior to November 20^th, the point where the planets appeared to stop their motion while in retrograde. Parpola sees the third conjunction of December 1^st (14^th Kislev) which preceded the Babylonian festival of Nabû. This festival was an annual reenactment of Nabû’s victory of the forces of chaos, a ritual during which the Babylonian king was incarnated as Nabû in the flesh, Nabû’s earthly representative on earth. Parpola notes that the Babylonians referred to this victory and incarnation as bussuraμti, literally “good tidings” to all men. He further claims that bussurtu, the root word is the Hebrew equivalent of besorah, the source of the Bible’s Greek term εὐαγγέλιον euaggelion, or gospel.

While Parpola’s theory provides interesting Babylonian insights, it lacks any direct quotations of ancient Babylonian tablets in support of the astronomical and astrological meanings he claims. His view shows merit, yet it is not the only astral phenomenon proposed as the Star of Bethlehem. To add to the diversity of views, a number of scholars have suggested that Josephus’ dating of Herod’s death may be incorrect, opening the possibility of astral events between 4 B.C..E and 4 C.E. [15]

Jupiter with Regulus in 3 B.C.E.

Larson has suggested an alternative astral event as the harbinger of Jesus’ birth. [16] He has suggested that a typesetting error occurred in 1544 C.E. causing all subsequent copies of Josephus’ work to be incorrect. All copies of Josephus’ Antiquities predating 1544 infer Herod’s death occurred in 1 B.C.E. [17] By opening the window an additional three years, Larson finds an alignment of Jupiter with Regulus, a triple conjunction, with Jupiter the King planet “crowning” Regulus, the King star. Regulus (meaning “prince” or “little king”) [18] is the brightest star in the constellation of Leo.

Larson takes the reference to Leo as the tribe of Judah (Genesis 49:9-10). He then proceeds to Revelation 12:1-6, arguing that the imagery of John is astral/zodiacal. Revelation 12 states: 

¹ A great and wondrous sign appeared in heaven: a woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet and a crown of twelve stars on her head. ² She was pregnant and cried out in pain as she was about to give birth. ³ Then another sign appeared in heaven: an enormous red dragon with seven heads and ten horns and seven crowns on his heads. ⁴ His tail swept a third of the stars out of the sky and flung them to the earth. The dragon stood in front of the woman who was about to give birth, so that he might devour her child the moment it was born. ⁵ She gave birth to a son, a male child, who will rule all the nations with an iron scepter. And her child was snatched up to God and to his throne. ⁶ The woman fled into the desert to a place prepared for her by God, where she might be taken care of for 1,260 days.

 Larson concludes that the woman is an astronomical symbol of Mary and Herod represents the personification of the dragon (Herod is often spoken of as a type of the Antichrist and the Satanic power behind him). [19] He argues that the constellation to follow Leo in the night sky was Virgo, the virgin, and Virgo was emerging from the east as Jupiter was in retrograde with Regulus. Larson uses astronomical software to show that when Virgo rose, she was clothed in the sun with a new moon at her feet. Larson claims this stellar show was at Rosh Hashana in September 3 B.C.E., providing further evidence to support his contention that the triple conjunction of Jupiter with Regulus portended the birth of a new king through the simultaneous rising of Virgo in the morning sky.  

In accordance with Jewish belief, He then proposes September 3 B.C.E. as the point of conception, not birth and then looks for further stellar evidence in the evening sky some nine months later in June 2 B.C.E. In June 2 B.C.E. there was a further alignment of Jupiter with Venus producing an exceptionally bright star due to its closeness and the brightness of Venus. [20] Larson claims Venus is “the mother star” and argues that this second conjunction may have been the Star of Bethlehem that triggered the magi to leave Mesopotamia and travel to Judea. By the time of their arrival, the conjunction would be past; hence why Herod would need to know when the star appeared. Larson concludes by arguing that Jupiter would have been visible in the southern sky from Jerusalem (in November 2 B.C.E.), showing that Jupiter subsequently “stopped” over Bethlehem on December 25^th, 2 B.C.E. as it again entered retrograde. [21]

Concluding Reflections – Signs in the Heavens

While Larson’s analysis has the advantage of having a basis in Scripture, it requires one to accept that Herod’s death was later than generally agreed. Further, he does not address how rare a triple conjunction of Jupiter with Regulus is, nor does he attempt to dissuade proponents of the theory of the triple conjunction of Jupiter with Saturn in Pisces. Most likely, the magi would have been Jewish as Laron provides no stellar rationale that this kingly birth would be in Palestine. Knowledge of this fact would require the magi to be schooled in Jewish prophecy and if so, why would the magi not know that this king was to be born in Bethlehem?

One can only conclude from these studies that there is yet no perfect explanation of the Star of Bethlehem. Nevertheless, its importance cannot be overstated as it served as a visible sign that a new world order was inaugurated. It marked the birth of a new king, the sign of which was prophesied to be visible in the heavens. It is this inescapable truth that makes the search for the Star of Bethlehem so important to Christian faith. While we cannot determine with certainty the identity of this star, credible explanations have been provided that could easily have been interpreted by magi of the establishment of a new world order.

Signs on the Earth – Joel’s End of the Age Prophecy

In examining possible signs of the earth’s destruction, one might posit why we would choose Joel. Many Christians see Joel’s prophecies as yet future. However, Peter’s declaration on the Day of Pentecost includes reference to Joel’s prophecy. Thus, we must examine Peter’s account.

Peter’s Proclamation on Pentecost: Joel’s Prophecy is Fulfilled

Pentecost brought the in-filling of the Holy Spirit. The puzzling event provided Peter an opportunity to explain its cosmic significance. To begin with, we must examine the events Luke records in Acts 2:

¹ When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. ² Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. ³ They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. ⁴ All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them.

Events Included a Theophany After the Model of Babel

Scripture records that “the Lord came down to see the city and the tower” but does not give further detail on exactly how He made His appearing. Jewish tradition held that God appeared in a theophany to the builders of Babel:

The theophany at Babel, like that in Acts 2:2, also was thought to have manifested itself in a strong “wind” (Josephus, Antiquities 1:118; Sibylline Oracles 3:101-102) and “various sounds” (Sibylline Oracles 3:106). [22]

The “blowing of a violent wind” and the “tongues of fire” that came to rest upon each of them suggests a theophany. Beale notes that this theophany parallels that of Babel:

The Theophany Signals the Curse of Babel’s Temple Now Passes to the Jerusalem Temple

The residents of Babel failed to fulfill God’s commission to be fruitful, multiply and fill the earth, preferring to settle in one place. In God’s eyes, this was a great sin. It was compounded with building of a false temple to the heavens (a man made mountain as a parody of the mountain of God, Mount Zion).

The theophany of Acts 2 occurred at Jerusalem when everyone was to gather at the temple, significant given that Babel’s judgment is now about to fall upon the Jerusalem temple (see Luke 21:5-24). [23] Further, the Jerusalem temple was to be displaced by a new temple, a greater temple of living stones, that of Jesus Christ and His followers, signaled in the infilling of believers in the upper room. The infilling of Solomon’s temple occurred at its consecration. It was visibly signaled in a cloud/theophany (1 Kings 8:10; cf. Exodus 40:34-38 when God indwelt the temple.

Thus, two purposes are seen in the theophany: first, to pronounce judgment and destruction upon the Jerusalem temple and second, to visibly demonstrate that God was now dwelling in His new temple – the infilling of His people.

The Theophany also Models Sinai Signaling a New People, New Exodus, New Land and New Covenant

The theophany in Acts 2 has elements of the Sinai theophany which included the noises of thunder, a loud trumpet blast (Exodus 19:16) and the sound of the trumpet growing louder (Exodus 16:19). Sinai was engulfed in flame (Exodus 19:18) and lightning was present (Exodus 19:16). Smoke and a thick cloud were not present at Pentecost but flames were.  

Exodus establishes the equivalence of the cloud and fire (Exodus 13:21-22; 14:20, 24; 40:38). Either can represent God’s presence, establishing a parallel with Sinai. It seems deliberate, intended to signal to the Jewish nation that a “new” Sinai experience was being inaugurated. A new Israel was being created to be in a new covenant with God through Christ Jesus – the new Moses, with a new temple to accompany them on a new exodus to a new land. [24] The theophany at Pentecost signals this new temple, new people of God, a new exodus and new covenant inaugurated by Christ’s death. These elements strongly suggest a new world order, yet Peter adds a reference to Joel.

Peter Ties the Theophany to Joel’s Prophecy of the Day of the Lord and End of the Age

In explaining the theophany as the fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy, Peter ties the theophany to Joel’s prophecy of the coming of the Day of the Lord:

¹⁶ No, this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel: ¹⁷ “ ‘In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. ¹⁸ Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy. ¹⁹ I will show wonders in the heaven above and signs on the earth below, blood and fire and billows of smoke. ²⁰ The sun will be turned to darkness and the moon to blood before the coming of the great and glorious day of the Lord. ²¹ And everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved.’ Acts 2

The key verses are 19-20 which deal with wonders in the heavens and signs on earth. What were these signs and wonders and how do they relate to the destruction of the old world order and the inauguration of God’s new world order? The reference to “blood and fire and billows of smoke” could describe Christ’s blood sacrifice followed by the theophany on Pentecost.

Signs on earth may include darkness from the sixth hour to the ninth hour (Matthew 27:45, as fulfillment of Joel 2:20, the sun will be turned to darkness), the tearing of the temple curtain (Matthew 45:51), an earthquake that shook the earth and split rocks (Matthew 27:51) and the resurrection of many saints that followed the opening of the tombs (Matthew 27:52-53). [25] Joel also prophesied the moon would turn to blood, a common term to describe a total lunar eclipse. The term “blood moon” comes from the refracted light seen during the eclipse that gives the moon a reddish appearance.

Was There a Blood Moon When Christ was Crucified?

In order to determine if a lunar eclipse occurred, the date of Christ’s crucifixion must be determined. Larson’s analysis includes an examination of the heavens at the time of Jesus’ crucifixion. He notes that Pontius Pilate was procurator from 26-36 C.E., establishing initial bounds on the timeframe of Christ’s crucifixion. The gospels record that Jesus was crucified on a Friday (the preparation day) with Passover on the 14^th Nisan, a Sabbath (Matthew 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; John 19:31). There are two occurrences of the Passover occurring on a Friday evening: April 7^th, 30 C.E. and April 3^rd 33 C.E.

To determine which is the likely date, Larson combines Biblical and secular documentation in search of clues. He begins with a deductive argument about Pontius Pilate who was appointed by Sejanus, Tiberius Caesar’s regent in Rome. Sejanus was a ruthless anti-Semite whom Pilate was quick to please by deliberately and frequently antagonizing the Jews. Sejanus also had designs to murder Tiberius and ascend the throne but Tiberius’ sister Antonia exposed the plot and Tiberius subsequently had Sejanus put to death. Tiberius then proceeded to murder anyone thought to be allied with Sejanus.

Given Pontius Pilate’s habit of antagonizing the Jews, Larson sees his efforts to free Jesus on crucifixion night as inconsistent unless Pilate was concerned his actions would be interpreted as supporting Sejanus. Further, after Sejanus’ death, Tiberius gave orders to cease all anti-Semitic activities against the Jews. Larson theorizes that Pilate’s reluctance to crucify Jesus was a result of Tiberius’ orders to leave the Jews alone. This order, which followed Sejanus’ death was given on October 18^th, 31 C.E. If Larson is correct, it suggests Jesus’ crucifixion was the latter date, April 3^rd, 33 C.E. [26] Next Larson examines Daniel’s prophecy of seventy weeks of Daniel 9 (see our earlier post for various views on Daniel’s seventy weeks). The key passage is:

²⁴ “Seventy ‘sevens’ are decreed for your people and your holy city to finish transgression, to put an end to sin, to atone for wickedness, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the most holy. ²⁵ “Know and understand this: From the issuing of the decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the Anointed One, the ruler, comes, there will be seven ‘sevens,’ and sixty-two ‘sevens.’ It will be rebuilt with streets and a trench, but in times of trouble. ²⁶ After the sixty-two ‘sevens,’ the Anointed One will be cut off and will have nothing. The people of the ruler who will come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. The end will come like a flood: War will continue until the end, and desolations have been decreed. ²⁷ He will confirm a covenant with many for one ‘seven.’ In the middle of the ‘seven’ he will put an end to sacrifice and offering. And on a wing of the temple he will set up an abomination that causes desolation, until the end that is decreed is poured out on him.”

The key verses are 25-26a which bound the timeframe of the Messiah’s crucifixion. The Messiah would be cut off sixty-nine sevens after the decree given to rebuild Jerusalem. Larson takes the “sevens” to be Sabbatical years, with a lunar chronology of 360 days to the prophetic year (following Revelation 11:3-4) and converts it to our solar calendrical system. By this reckoning, 483 prophetic years become 476 solar years. Fixing the decree to rebuild Jerusalem in 444 B.C.E. and adding 476 solar years puts the end of the sixty-ninth seven as 33 C.E. [27] Both these findings support that Jesus was crucified in 33 C.E.

Jesus was put on the cross at 9am (Mark 15:25) and passed away about six hours later after the occurrence of an earthquake and three hours of darkness beginning at noon. Using astronomical software, Larson confirmed a lunar eclipse on the evening of Christ’s crucifixion; an eclipse that began before evening (i.e. starting below the horizon). Larson claims that the eclipse began at 3pm in Jerusalem in agreement with Scripture’s account of the time of Christ’s death, a full moon in eclipse. He concludes that these signs in the heavens and on earth confirm the prophecies of Joel 2.

These Signs were a Powerful Testimony to the Jewish People

The numerous signs Scripture records – and the striking fulfillment of even a blood moon, serve as powerful confirmation of the accuracy of Scripture and support why Peter, in addressing the Jewish crowd on Pentecost could declare:

²² “Men of Israel, listen to this: Jesus of Nazareth was a man accredited by God to you by miracles, wonders and signs, which God did among you through him, as you yourselves know. Acts 2 (Emphasis mine)

Having awareness of Daniel’s prophecy of seventy weeks, the Jewish nation was looking for their Messiah, expecting his imminent appearance. The signs testifying Jesus’ birth, the manifest miracles during His ministry and signs evident at His death left little doubt that Jesus was the Messiah. In the face of so much evidence, Peter’s boldness at Pentecost is understandable. Jesus was the Messiah as the Jewish people knew. [28]

If this evidence still proved unconvincing to many Jews, the subsequent destruction of Herod’s temple prophesied by Jesus should remove any remaining doubt. Jesus, the new spiritual man inaugurated a new covenant, called a new people, initiated a new exodus, inaugurated a new priesthood, built a new temple and divinely infilled that temple with God’s effulgent presence. His presence was manifest in tongues of fire on His followers, bringing a new creation – a new world order. He fulfilled the old covenant of Sinai, obsoleting it with a higher covenant ratified in His blood. The superiority of the new men, the new Israel, the new priesthood, the new temple and new Kingdom destined the passing of the old. No wonder the author of Hebrews could declare:

But now he has appeared once for all at the end of the ages to do away with sin by the sacrifice of himself. Hebrews 9:26b (emphasis mine)

No wonder Christ’s coming was accompanied with such compelling signs and wonders. Truly the end of the ages have come and a new age, a new world order has been inaugurated.

Implications for the Church, the New People of God

Numerous references to the Day of the Lord warn of signs in the heavens and on earth (Isaiah 2:2; 13:9-10; 34:1-8; Ezekiel 13:1-13; 30:1-19; Joel 2:1-11; 3:14-15; Zechariah 14:4-8; Matthew 24:29; 2 Peter 3:10-12; possibly Isaiah 2:21; Amos 5:18-20; Zephaniah 1:15) as does Revelation 6:12-17, speaking of the Day of God’s wrath. [29] Often these signs are thought figurative. But our studies suggest greater weight should be given for signs, particularly heavenly signs.

Will Christ’s Coming be Accompanied by Similar Signs in the Heavens?

Given the astral occurrences witnessed at Jesus’ birth and death, it begs the question if similar astral signs could accompany Jesus’ second coming. Would physical signs serve as harbingers of unseen judgments in the war in the heavens, indicating a final destruction of the old world order and establishment of God’s new order, the Kingdom of God?

Revelation 6:12 is illustrative, a passage many expositors and scholars have concluded is yet future, but with a description that parallels Joel 2:31, it could be posited at Christ’s death. Does this suggest similar signs at Christ’s Parousia? If so, a clue may exist in the symbolic name of Jesus as the bright morning star (Revelation 22:16), a term emphasizing the greater glory of Christ when compared with God’s angelic hosts (often referred to as stars). Venus is described as both the evening and morning star depending upon when its rising above the horizon occurs:

It is the brightest natural object in the night sky except for the moon . . . Venus reaches its maximum brightness shortly before sunrise or shortly after sunset, for which reason it is often called the Morning Star or the Evening Star. [30]

Venus “overtakes” the Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun. As it does so, it goes from being the “Evening Star”, visible after sunset, to being the “Morning star”, visible before sunrise. [31]

The importance to the ancients of Venus is attested in the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa. It recorded good and bad omens based upon the first and last visibility of Venus on the horizon before or after sunrise and sunset. That astrologers would keep such detailed mapping of Venus’ appearances and prognosticate the future suggests its importance in antiquity.

Venus’ orbit is sufficiently short however, that one would expect the involvement of other planets in a conjunction in order to make the event sufficiently rare and astronomically spectacular. The bright morning star suggests an alignment of Venus with other planet(s) or star(s) in order to amplify its brightness, possibly even a conjunction in an accompanying zodiacal constellation known by the ancients to herald of the coming of Christ and His kingdom. Could such a “bright morning star” herald the dawn of a very special day, the Day of the Lord? Jesus’ words in Matthew 24 seem suggestive:

³⁰ “At that time the sign of the Son of Man will appear in the sky, and all the nations of the earth will mourn. They will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of the sky, with power and great glory.

It was prior noted that an alignment of Jupiter with Venus as the evening star occurred in June 2 B.C.E., a possible sign of the coming of the Messiah. A dawn appearing of Venus as the morning star in conjunction with other astral phenomena could be a possibility for Christ’s second coming. By this reckoning, the appearing of the Star of Bethlehem (a conjunction including Venus as “evening star”) would signal the cultic evening of the Day of the Lord, (note Christ’s crucifixion “at even”) and the appearing of the morning star signaling the dawn of the Day of the Lord (see The Day of Creation and the Day of the Lord for an explanation). Could it follow that at Christ’s second coming, the sign might include the appearing of Venus as morning star?

One can only conjecture as “the sign of the Son of Man” is not explained and Jesus makes clear in Matthew 24:30 that “no one knows about that day or hour”. Perhaps 2 Peter 1 provides the best insight:

¹⁶ We did not follow cleverly invented stories when we told you about the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of his majesty. ¹⁷ For he received honor and glory from God the Father when the voice came to him from the Majestic Glory, saying, “This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased.” ¹⁸ We ourselves heard this voice that came from heaven when we were with him on the sacred mountain.  ¹⁹ And we have the word of the prophets made more certain, and you will do well to pay attention to it, as to a light shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star [32] rises in your hearts. ²⁰ Above all, you must understand that no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation. ²¹ For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit. (Emphasis mine)

How appropriate that Peter describes our Lord’s coming as the morning star at dawn. His brightest moment was “at even” on the cross and will also be “at dawn” at His second coming, moments marking the passing of the old world order and coming of a new world order. Whatever the sign of the Son of Man may be, its importance cannot be understated as it marks the coming of the Kingdom of God, the complete destruction of the old world order and the establishment of the rulership of Christ.

Concluding Reflections

For some, this post is not so simple. Most readers likely lack detailed knowledge of astronomy and the movements of the stars and planets. Yet some credible possibilities have been presented for the Star of Bethlehem, an emblem of fascination for many Christians. Importantly, we have endeavored to show that it is an important eschatological harbinger of the end of the old world order and inauguration of the new world order.

The new order is the new creation seen in vision by John in Revelation 21:1, though John’s vision showed the new creation’s consummation. If the events at Christ’s advent signaled the end of the old world order and the beginning of a new world order, it enhances the view that prophecy is inaugurated, with fulfillment seen in inauguration at the beginning of the new age and consummation at Christ’s Parousia.

Important to grasp is the simultaneity of both worlds, with the old passing away over the span of Christ’s appearing’s just as the the new creation spans from first to final appearing of our Lord. The old world order judicially passing at the same eschatological “moment” as the inauguration of the new creation would be an event so important to be marked by signs in the heavens and on earth, marking the monumental change. No wonder then Christ’s birth would be marked with such astronomical signs.

As a marker of the passing of the old world order and inauguration of a new world order, the enduring importance of the Star of Bethlehem is manifest, revealing why scholars and wise men still search for the star today. While it is not possible to determine dogmatically what cosmic phenomenon explains the Star of Bethlehem, Christ’s birth, death and resurrection fulfill the ancient expectation that astral phenomena were understood to overturn and destroy an existing world order and introduce a new one. It should encourage Christians.

Critical is recognition that Jesus’ birth, death and resurrection mark the most important event in the history of creation: it is the beginning of the end. [33] The impact of this event is profoundly eschatological, with believers part of this new world order, members of the Kingdom of God, citizens of the New Jerusalem already. Their lives should reflect this important truth.

The eschaton is not distant but imminent. The testimony of the disciples, together with Joel, demonstrate that the end of days is here, evident in the powerful signs at Jesus’ birth and death. It joins believers with eschatology, making them a critical part of its realization. Joel’s testimony supports that the Day of the Lord has begun in inauguration. Its evening came with Christ’s ascension and dawn’s break is imminent. We must labor urgently for the Kingdom. His return is coming soon.

Finally, it is critical for the church to realize Israel’s rejection of Christ in spite of all the signs in the heavens, on earth and through His ministry. Many were eye-witnesses to His miracles and healings. Yet most rejected Christ as their Messiah and Savior. It urges diligence for believers that we not fall into the same unbelief. Given Christ’s warnings that most will be unprepared for the coming judgment and swept away in it, critical is spiritual watchfulness grounded in the authority of Scripture. As Peter said, we are not following cleverly invented stories but are ourselves eye-witnesses of the power of God in our world. May we proclaim it boldly in the hope to win others to Christ.

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[1] Fermer, M.T., The Illustrated Bible Dictionary Volume 2, Stars, Wheaton, IL, Inter-Varsity Press, Tyndale House Publishers, 1980,p. 1485

[2] Tipler, F. J., The Star of Bethlehem: a Type Ia/Ic Supernova in the Andromeda Galaxy, March 20, 2005, available @ http://129.81.170.14/~tipler/starofbethlehem.pdf

[3] There are Chinese and Korean records that are not in agreement on the date of appearing, the Chinese record suggests 5 B.C.E. and the Korean 4 B.C.E. Some have concluded a scribal error may exist in the Korean record that if corrected, brings good agreement with the Chinese record. This nova apparently was seen between the constellations of Altair and Capricornus. It is not clear from the record if the sighting was a nova or comet, the description seems to fit a comet though movement across the sky is missing. Tiplar suggests a nova in Andromeda constellation. A discussion of this nova is available @ http://www.astrosurf.com/comets/Star_of_Bethlehem/English/Chinese.htm

[4] For historical arguments showing favorable beliefs in comets, see Humphries, Colin, The Star of Bethlehem, from Science and Christian Belief,  Volume 5, (October 1995): p. 83-101, also available @ http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Astronomy-Cosmology/S&CB&2010-93Humphreys.html

[5] The Resurgent Greek Project defines πλανήται as “wander, roamer, planet (lit. ‘wandering star’ as opposed to a ‘fixed star’” of the Greek used in Jude 1:13. see www.zhubert.com

[6] Wikipedia, Venus,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wandering_stars

[7] Kaufmanis references Amos 5:26 in support of his argument. Amos 5:26 is a scathing passage accusing Israel of serving Moloch and worshiping the star כִּיּוּן Chiun (AV). Chiun is probably a statue of the Assyrian-Babylonian god of the planet Saturn (per the Lexicon of Blueletterbible.org (BLB) and also Gensenius’ Lexicon). This same verse uses the word כּוֹכָב kowkab for “star” where BLB again defines kowkab as “star of Messiah” among other definitions. Kowkab is also the word used in Numbers 24:17 – “there shall come a star out of Jacob” – the likely source of the belief in a coming Star marking the birth of the Messiah. For the full text, see Kaufmanis, Karlis, Christmas: An American Annual of Literature and Art, Volume 43, Augburn, Augsburn Publishing House, 1973 also available @ http://www.astro.umn.edu/news/vol18.pdf

[8] For a full discussion of Parpola’s position, see Parpola, Simo, The Magi and the Star, Babylonian Asstronomy Dates Jesus’ Birth, available @ http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/free-ebooks/The First Christmas: The Story of Jesus’ Birth in History and Tradition, Chapter 2, December 2001

[9] Ibid

[10] It is ironic that Parpola, using his knowledge of ancient Assyrian astronomy concludes from their records that the motion of the planets and their conjunctions seem to be at the heart of Babylonian astronomy and astrology. He notes that the Babylonian word for “star” was kakkabu, a term he claims can mean a single star, a planet or a constellation. It shows the importance of understanding how differently the ancients thought from modern men who might conclude that the Star of Bethlehem must be a stationary star.

[11] Parpola references four copies from 71 B.C.E. and five copies from 69 B.C.E. and finds multiple copies striking, suggesting their importance as often only a single copy is extant. He notes that in 85% of the tablets, only 1 copy exists as the information was not for general distribution but reserved for a few astronomical scholars. He sees the multiple copies as evidence of the importance to Babylonian astronomers of the triple conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in Pisces, an event he claims occurs roughly every 800 years. He sees astronomical, astrological and political importance in this conjunction.

[12] The massing of Mars was in 6 B.C.E. by our calendars, which differ from the ancients where the year began in March/April at the vernal equinox.

[13] I have quoted Parpola here as his words are surprising, emphasizing not just the political implications but the cosmic implications to the Magi. Parpola, Simo, The Magi and the Star, Babylonian Asstronomy Dates Jesus’ Birth, available @ http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/free-ebooks/The First Christmas: The Story of Jesus’ Birth in History and Tradition, Chapter 2, December 2001

[14] Ibid

[15] Given that Jesus started His ministry when He was roughly thirty, ministered for roughly 3.5 years and was crucified somewhere around 30 C.E., astronomical appearances more recent than 4 C.E. would be unlikely candidates.

[16] Larson, Frederick A., has a website and DVD presenting his findings on the subject. For those interested, see www.bethlehemstar.net

[17] Larson’s claim is based upon the works of Finegan, Jack, The Handbook of Biblical Chronology, Revised Edition, Peabody MA, Hendrickson Publishers, 1998; Martin, Ernest L., The Star That Astonished the World, Second Edition, Portland OR, ASK Publications, 1996; Beyer, David W., Josephus Re-Examined: Unraveling the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius, inChronos, Kairos, Christos II, edited by E. Jerry Vardaman, Macon GA, Mercer University Press, 1998; Steinmann, Andrew, When Did Herod the Great Reign?, Novum Testamentum,Volume 51, Number 1, 2009

[18] Wikipedia suggests its etymology from Latin, claiming Regulus was known to the arabs as Qalb al-Asad, meaning “heart of the lion”. Wikipedia also claims Regulus was known to ancient Persians as far back as 3000 B.C.E. as Venant, one of the four royal stars.

[19] It is more reasonable to associate the woman with Israel or the Jewish nation from whom the Messiah was birthed, evident from vs 6.

[20] This alignment of Jupiter with Venus occurred June 17^th, 2 B.C.E. Using SkyGazer 4 software, the author confirmed this alignment in the evening sky, seen in the west. When visible after sunset,

[21] Larson’s claim is that retrograde began October 30^th 2 B.C.E., then Jupiter reversed its direction on November 25^th, and stopped as it again reversed its direction on December 25^th. It suggests that the celebration of December 25^th is not the actual birth of Christ but the date when the magi arrived to worship Him.

[22] Beale, G. K., The Temple and the Church’s Mission, A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God, Downers Grove IL, InterVarsity Press, 2004, p. 202. Beale also notes the similarity in greek between Josephus’ account of the theopany of Babel with that of Acts 2. (see footnote 7, pg 202).

[23] There is irony present with everyone gathered in “one place” much like at Babel, yet unexpectedly, the tongues spoken did not bring the confusion of Babel but the Jewish crowd present heard and understood what was said in their own tongue. The crowd were representatives of the nations witnessing the reverse of the curse!

[24] Beale shows how “tongues of fire” became associated with a theopany from God’s heavenly temple. See Beale, G. K., The Temple and the Church’s Mission, A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God, Downers Grove IL, InterVarsity Press, 2004, p. 205-208

[25] Larson references the testimony of Phlegon Trallianus who wrote in the second century C.E.: “In the fourth year of the 202^nd Olympiad [AD 32-33], a failure of the Sun took place greater than any previously known, and night came on at the sixth hour of the day [noon], so that stars actually appeared in the sky; and a great earthquake took place in Bithynia and overthrew the greater part of Niceaea,”. www.bethlehemstar.net/day/day.htm He does not state how he came to the conclusion that the fourth year of the 202^nd Olympiad equates to 32-33CE though it is likely it derives from Stephenson, F. Richard, Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation, Cambridge University Press, July 1997, IBSN 0-52146-194-4 which appears to be the source for his quotation on Phlegon.

[26] Larson’s footnotes quote Tacitus, Josephus and Philo concerning the activities of Tiberius, Sejanus and Pilate. For more information, see www.bethlehemstar.net

[27] Larson follows the chronology of Hoehner, Harold W., Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ, Chapter VI: “Daniel’s Seventy Weeks and the New Testament Chronology”, Grand Rapids MI, 1977, IBSN 0-310-26211-9

[28] This is the crux of Larson’s argument. The signs of Jesus’ birth and death, particularly the astronomical ones, were convincing proofs to the Jews that Jesus was the Messiah.

[29] Numerous references in Scripture to the Day of the Lord (also “that day”, “the day”, “the Day of Jesus Christ”) emphasize its centrality to eschatology. The references here mention only signs in the heavens and on earth. Isaiah 13 may not be a direct reference to the Day of the Lord, only a warning to the Babylonians that the severity of the judgment to befall them will be like the Day of the Lord, likewise Isaiah 46:10 of Egypt, Lamentations 2:22 of Jerusalem, Ezekiel 30:1-19 and possibly Ezekiel 13:1-13.

[30] Wikipedia, Venus, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus

[31] Wikipedia, Venus,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus#Orbit_and_rotation

[32] Thayer’s Lexicon defines morning star or day star (phosphoros) as light bringing, light giving and the planet Venus.

[33] This view seems to have escaped notice in many evangelical circles. Common eschatological exegesis assumes that the new creation – the new heaven and new earth seen by John in Revelation 21:1 is wholly in the future. Likewise the destruction of the present creation (the present cosmos) also is viewed as wholly to occur in the future with the creation of the new heaven and new earth to replace the present heaven and earth that will be subject to destruction by fire at the end of time, the very end of God’s eschatological plan. Such a view runs counter to substantial biblical evidence for an inaugurated realization.